Heat Conduction

Experiment 16: Heat conduction Introduction In this laboratory you will study heat flow across a temperature gradient. By comparing the temperature difference across one material to the temperature difference across a second material of known thermal conductivity, when both are conducting heat at a steady rate, you will be able to calculate the thermal conductivity of the first material. You will then compare the experimental value of the calculated thermal conductivity to the known value for that material.Thermal conductivity is an important concept in the earth sciences, with applications including estimating of cooling rates of magma chambers, geothermal explorations, and estimates of the age of the Earth. It is also important in regard to heat transport in air, to understanding the properties of insulating material (including the walls and windows of your house), and in many other areas. The objective of this laboratory experiment is to apply the concepts of heat flow to measure the thermal conductivity of various materials. Theory Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the random motion of molecules with a material.As the temperature of a material increases, the random motion of its molecules increases, and the material absorbs and stores a quantity which we call heat. The material is said to be hotter. Heat, once thought to be a fundamental quantity specifically related to temperature, is now known to be simply another form of energy. The equivalence of heat and energy is one of the foundations of thermodynamics. As the molecules in one region of a material move, they collide with molecules in neighboring portions of the material, thus transferring some of their energy to other regions.The net result is that heat flows from regions with higher temperatures to regions with lower temperatures. An exact calculation of this heat flow can be very difficult for materials with complicated shapes and complicated temperature distributions, but in some s imple cases the heat flow can be calculated. In this experiment, we will consider the heat flow across a plate of material of cross sectional area A and thickness ? x when its faces are held at constant (and different) temperatures, as indicated in Fig. 1. Figure 1 Heat flow across a plate. In this case the rate of heat flow H across the material is given by H = KA !T ! x ( ) (1) where ! T = T2 † T1 is the temperature difference across the plate and K is a quantity called the thermal conductivity. Note that this equation only applies because we keep the top and bottom at fixed temperature. In a more general situation, the flow of heat would alter the temperature of the top and bottom, and a more complicated approach would be required to deal with the situation. Heat is transferred more efficiently through shapes with a large area that are subject to a large temperature difference, but more slowly through thicker materials.If the units of H are J/s, that of A are m2, ? x is in m, and the units of temperature are ? C or K, then the units of K must be W/m-oC. Prove this for yourself, and show it in your laboratory book. Since the Celsius degree is the same size as a degree on the Kelvin scale, the units of thermal conductivity are usually expressed as W/m-K. We will use Eq. (1) to measure the heat flow through a material of known thermal conductivity and then use this result to determine the thermal conductivity of unknown samples forced to conduct heat at the same rate.Thermocouples In order to apply Eq. (1) we will need to measure the temperature difference ? T across our samples. It would be difficult to insert a thermometer into the gap between plates without disrupting the heat flow, so we will instead use a temperature probe that uses a device known as a thermocouple. 2 Figure 2. A Thermocouple A thermocouple is simply two connected wires made of dissimilar metals. Whenever two different metals contact each other, a small voltage difference is generat ed. This voltage difference is dependent on the temperature of the junction.If we measure this voltage difference with an accurate voltmeter, we can look up the temperature of the junction relative to the temperature of the connection to the voltmeter in a thermocouple table. The instrument used in this lab does the conversion for you, so can read the temperature directly. The thermocouple probe is now a very common device for measuring temperature, particularly in small places. For, example many medical thermometers are now based on thermocouples rather than the more traditional liquid in a glass tube. Experiment: Apparatus:The apparatus for this experiment are shown in the following figure, which also demonstrates how you will use the equipment. Figure 3. The apparatus for measuring thermal conductivity. 3 The apparatus for this experiment consists of a hot plate to supply heat, an ice bath to absorb heat, and plates of various materials through which heat will follow. Temperature s of the plates will be measured with a glass thermometer. In addition, the diameter and thickness of each plate will be measured with vernier calipers. Method Measure the diameter and thickness of each plate provided.Calculate the areas of the plates. Create the following table in your report and fill it in. Table 1. Dimensions of various plates Material Masonite Aluminum Plexiglass Plywood Teflon Using the glass thermometer, measure the temperature of the room and ice bath. Record your values. I. Thermal Conductivity of Plexiglass Construct a â€Å"sandwich† consisting of aluminum, masonite and plexiglass with the slots arranged so that thermocouples can be inserted on either side of the masonite plate. Place the sandwich on the hot plate with the aluminum side down. Place the ice bath on top of the sandwich.Switch the hotplate controller on and set the Variac to approximately 40% power. The exact value is not important, but if the power is set much higher some of the mater ials may get too hot. WARNING: Use extreme caution around the hot plate and when handling any of the materials that come into contact with it for the remainder of the experiment. The surfaces will become HOT! It will take up to 30 minutes for the heat flow to achieve a steady state. Monitor the progress by plotting the temperature readings T1 of the thermocouple 1 and T2 of thermocouple 2 as a function of time. Expect a maximum time of 45 minutes.Take readings every 1 to 2 minutes. If you miss a reading, skip it and record the next reading at the appropriate time on your plot. 4 Diameter (cm) Diameter (m) Area (m2) Thickness (cm) Thickness (m) You should find that the temperature readings eventually approach constant values. Even if they are still drifting after 30 minutes, the small changes to the heat flow will have only a small effect on your results. Record final values of the temperatures for the aluminum/masonite/plexiglass sandwich. You now have all the data needed to calcula te the thermal conductivity of plexiglass.See the â€Å"analysis† section later in these notes for details about how to do this. Calculate its value. II. Thermal conductivity of Plywood Carefully remove the Plexiglas plate and replace it with the plywood sheet (with slot down). Reinsert thermocouple 2 and place the ice bath back on top of the sandwich. Since a steady state heat flow has already been established in the aluminum and masonite, this new configuration should take only about 20 minutes to achieve a steady state. While you are waiting for the temperature readings to stabilize, you may wish to use the time to calculate the thermal conductivity of Plexiglas.If you do this, keep an eye on the temperature readings so that you know when a steady state has been achieved. Record the steady state values of the temperature for the sandwich of aluminum/masonite/plywood. III. Thermal Conductivity of Teflon Carefully remove the plywood plate and replace it with the Teflon plate (with slot down). Reinsert thermocouple 2 and place the ice bath back on top of the sandwich. Again, a steady state will probably be achieved in about 20 minutes. Record the steady state values of the temperatures for the sandwich of aluminum/masonite/Teflon. Analysis If e neglect the heat that escapes from the edges of the plates (due to convection and radiation), all of the heat provided by the hot plate must flow through each of the plates and into the ice bath, once a steady state has been achieved. Thus the heat flow through each plate must be the same throughout the sandwich. In particular, this means that the heat flow through the masonite is equal to the heat flow through the top material. Therefore we can write Hm = Htop . Using Eq. (1) we find that K m Am ! Tm ! xm = K top Atop ! Ttop ! xtop ( ) ( ) (2) The thermal conductivity of masonite is known to be 0. 0476 W/mK.You can derive an expression from Eq. (1) for the thermal conductivity of the top plate. 5 Use your measur ed values and the known value for the Km to calculate the thermal conductivities of each of the top plates used. Prepare a table like that shown below and fill in the values in your report. Table 2. Thermal conductivities of materials used in this laboratory. Material Calculated thermal Published value of K conductivity (W/mK) (W/mK) Aluminum Masonite Plexiglass Plywood Teflon The least accurate measurements in this experiment are the thermocouple voltages, which are only measured to 0. 1 mV accuracy.Based on this accuracy, estimate the uncertainty in the temperature difference across the masonite plate. Considering the uncertainty in this temperature difference only, what is the approximate percentage error in your calculated thermal conductivity values? Questions: 1. Use Eq. (1) to calculate the total rate of heat flow H through each of the plates in Part 1. (Note: The same value of H must hold for each plate, so you only need to use Eq. (1) once). 2. Do your results agree with th e expected values? If not, what measurements, processes, and/or assumptions do you suspect to have been significant sources of error? 6

Most Significant Events of Each Decade

Most Significant Events Final Project K A University of Phoenix: Axia College Jonathan Tietz November 28, 2010 Most Significant Events of the 50`s, 60`s 70`s 80`s and 90`s World War II lasted from 1939 to 1945. This was a war that involved most of the world’s nations and all of the world’s greatest powers. When the war ended the events that followed over the next five decades had a great effect on the American people. There are some events that had more of an effect than others. This paper will discuss five major events over five decades that has had a powerful effect on the American people.Beginning in 1950 and ending in 1990, this paper will discuss the most significant events from each decade that either positively or negatively changed the American way of living. The communist scare took place in the 1950`s. McCarthyism, named after a man named Joseph McCarthy was a republican U. S. senator. In the 1950`s anticommunism created fear among the American people (McCarth yism, 2006). McCarthy played on Americans fears in an effort to better his political campaign. He instilled this fear by convicting anyone who was a part of the communist party or had anything to do with it.During court hearing Americans remained silent so that they wouldn`t be accused of communism. He accused some of the United States federal government of being communist and soviet spies. McCarthy was unable to prove his claims and was therefore censored by the American government (McCarthyism, 2006). Americans lost their jobs if they were accused of communism, library books were burned to hide evidence of communist acts. Americans suffered greatly during this time as they had to walk on around on egg shells (McCarthyism, 2006). IfAmericans did not agree with anticommunism, they were considered to be communist and were punished for not supporting the American way. People feared McCarthy, but it all ended when he made a public mockery of senate procedures (McCarthyism, 2006). He en ded his career to be known as reckless and dishonest man. Americans want peace took place in the 1960`s. The Vietnam War was well overdue considering some events that took place after World War II. How did America get involved in the Vietnam War? It all started with the Atlantic Charter. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston S.Church hill created this charter in hopes of a better world. Russia and China were not part of this charter and ultimately lead the U. S. to believe that Russia and China were involved in colonialism. Communism increased in South East Asia, mostly in Korea, Vietnam, China, and Cuba. The U. S. took action and attacked and conflict arose with Korea. The U. S. gets involved in Southeast Asia`s politics. North Korea invades South Korea. Nothing is accomplished and North Korea remains the same and South Korea remains the same. Next the U. S. inhabits South Vietnam.The U. S. helps rebuild South Vietnams economy. The U. S. tried to gain control over South Vietnams politi cs to avoid Vietnam turning communist. In 1965 North Vietnam attacked South Vietnam and American bases. North Vietnam lost the Vietnam War because they were no match for the American troops. The war had a dramatic effect on the American way of living. Americans rallied for peace and fell into the hippie era during the Vietnam War. During this time sex and drugs were on the rise. New drugs were introduced to the American people as the drug population grew.People began to have more sex during this time, which may have something to do with the increased drug use. The hippie era was a way of Americans expressing themselves of how they felt about the war. Many people wrote songs that told stories of things that were going on during that time. Mainly people wanted the war to end. Americans wanted peace, and sex, drugs and music was their way of getting away from it all. Detente took place in the 1970`s. Nixon`s visit to china in 1972 was an important step to build a relationship between A merica and China. This was the first time an American president had visited China.President Nixon visited China from February 21-28, 1972. Nixon reaffirmed interest for a peaceful settlement, and the U. S. continued to have relations with the Republic of China. Nixon was a strong advocate against communism so it surprised everyone when he went to visit china. He felt that if all nations cooperated with each other, then they could have reduced revenue and prevented a third world war. Nixon`s engagement with the communist was called Detente. Nixon held diplomatic conversations with China to establish a relationship and use that relationship against the Soviet Union.Nixon began the Nuclear Arms Reduction Treaty. Soon after came the end of the cold war. All About the Benjamin’s, took place in the 1980`s the decade of corporate greed. During this time Ronald Regan was the president and he was looking for a way to improve the American economy. His economic policy focused on focused on four points. First Regan wanted to reduce government spending, reduce income, reduce government regulation and control the money supply (Reagonomics 2010). His approach involved reducing tax cuts for wealthy Americans, and cutting funding for lower class Americans ( Reagonomics 2010).Regan felt if he cut funds for people on welfare that those Americans would try to get jobs. He introduced the earned income credit. He felt that this tax credit would be a way to encourage the unemployed to get out and work. Regan economic policies had both positive and negative effects on the American way of living (Reganomics 2010). The wealthy became richer and the poor became poorer. The unemployment rate declined but there was an increase in homeless and hungry Americans. Regan thought that he could create wealth for the U. S. by allowing business owners and free market corporations to compete for wealth.Reagan lowered the oil windfall profit tax. He lifted the petroleum price, deregulated air lines, and most of the airlines went bankrupt. He thought he could fix things that he could not fix. His motives were in the right place but the actions he took were not completely in the Americas best interest. Many Americans suffered during this time, but still Reagan was elected for a second term. He was liked by many. Some believe that Reganomics benefited America. Some of the policies introduced by Reagan are still being used today. Some of Reagan’s policies served as a blueprint on different ways to better the conomy. The Never Ending War took place in the 1990`s. In the books it is written that the gulf war began in August 1990 and ended in February 1991, but a war in Iraq still goes on today (1990`s, 2010). The gulf war was a war waged by the U. N. led by the United States and The United Nations against Iraq. Iraq troops invaded Kuwait in 1990 and brought immediate economic sanctions against Iraq. United States president George H. W. Bush sent American soldiers to Sau di Arabia six months later (1990`s, 2010). Many nations joined the coalition with America but America had the majority in military forces.Following The United States was Saudi Arabia, The United Kingdom, and Egypt (Gulf War, 2010). There had already been friction with Iraq and the United States that date back to the Cold War. Iraq was an ally of the Soviet Union (Gulf War, 2010). The United States had a concern involving Iraq`s position on Israel and Palestinian politics because Iraq disapproved of peace between Israel and Egypt. On August 12, 1990 Saddam Hussein wanted to compromise (Gulf War, 2010). He requested an immediate freeze of all boycott and siege decisions and wanted normalization of relations with Iraq.The United States expressed that there would be no negotiations until Iraq came out of Kuwait. Many resolutions were passed regarding the invasion made by Iraq. The most important was Resolution 678, passed in November of 1990, which set a deadline for Iraq to withdrawal from Kuwait (Gulf War, 2010). The deadline was for January 15, 1991. Ultimately if Iraq did not withdrawal but that time, they would have to be forced out. This brings us back to the coalition. Some countries did not join the coalition but sent money in support of it. Some countries did not want to increase U. S. nfluence in the Middle East (1990`s, 2010). In the end many nations were persuaded. Nations were promised economic aid, debt forgiveness or threats to withhold aid. Today the war in Iraq continues. There are still American troops overseas. How long will this war continue? It is unknown, but what is known is that this war has been indirectly been going on for decades, and all other wars and significant events before this war ultimately led to this one. So what is going to happen to America for the years to come? How will our current president deal with current issue that are results of past presidents decisions?America still has the same economic problems that Regan faced. W e are still at war with Iraq even after the first President Bush left office. In the future I see the war continuing. After the attacks of 9/11 I don’t think that The United States government would feel comfortable if they pulled all of the soldiers out of Iraq. I see the United States falling into a deeper depression. After all we are dealing with years of economic recovery. The unemployment rate over the past years has dropped. It is extremely hard for some people to get jobs.What is so hard to understand is how the United States began as one of the strongest countries economically, socially and politically and now we are falling so far behind. The United States is falling behind in education and this used to be the leading country in education. The United States has fallen behind in production. How could a country that is not social developed, compete with other countries that are so far ahead? It is unknown where the United States will be a decade from now but based on th e past compared to now, we might be dealing with same old issues.It may be worst. There may be more homeless, hungry, unemployed Americans a decade from now. The way the deficit is Funding for welfare programs may get cut again. Things are still the same. The rich are getting richer and the poor are getting poorer. If things do not soon change, there will be no hope for America’s future.Works CitedMcCarthyism. (2006, 8 23). Retrieved 11 23, 2010, from pbs. org: http://www. pbs. org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/arthur-miller/mccarthyism/484/ 1990`s. (2010).Retrieved 11 28, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/1990s Gulf War. (2010).Retrieved 11 27, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Gulf_War Vietnam War. (2010).Retrieved 11 23, 2010, from wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Vietnam_War

Virgin Mobile Marketing Metrics

Virgin Mobile’s business model consists of several different strategies for success. On July 2002, Virgin launched its new cellular service company, mostly geared for individuals ages 15- 19. The UK-based company had plans to acquire new clientele by tapping the youth market with the following tactics: Text messaging bundles: Virgin believed text messaging was a key selling point for youth as kids would often communicate with friends or family through this medium as it was cheaper than daytime minutes and a more discrete form of communication while in class.Ring Tones: Virgin offered a large selection of favourite and popular tunes and music that could be set as your cellular ringtone. Fun Clips: Are audio clippings of new gossip, sports information, jokes and other information that teens generally have interest in and have the time to review. Other features such as Music Messenger allowed cell phone users to share their favourite music with their friends and classmates.These features appealed more to the youth market and generated additional cell phone usage (if not by using minutes) and customer loyalty. Virgin believed that these mediums would bond customers to their phones therefore creating more interest. Virgin signed contracts with several phone manufacturers such as: Kyocera, Nokia, LG and more to enable a variety of phones to choose from; each providing a different benefit that would appeal to the youth.By adding these features and targeting the 15-24 market, as well as being a contract-free cell phone provider, this generated more interest in the market because the ones under 18 would have had to use their parents to sign a contract for them in order to have a wireless device, this way, Virgin enables customers the freedom. Assuming the number of customers is 5 in year one, and retention rate is 75% the decline in customers yearly thereafter will be deducted by the same percentage.By taking the number of effective customers in 2001 and multiply ing it by retention rates we acquire the pattern or deduction. (copy and pasting the formula along the years 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006; the five-year wireless contract). | | | | | | Retention rate was calculated by assuming the number of total customers was 100. 25 customers left to another service provider. 100-25 = 75. (75/100) *100 = 75% Retention. Tab 1 of spreadsheet Tab 2 of spreadsheet

A Young Athlete Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Young Athlete - Research Paper Example r affection for games amid supplementary things had distinguished them from non-Greeks therefore, solitary Greek populace were permitted to contend in the games. (Camp 2004) In ornamentation, procedure of construction and appearance, Panathenaic amphorae had pursued conventional ethnicity for generations. The Vase in above picture is of 24  ½ in height and as of current situation it is conserved at the Metropolitan Museum of New York. (www.metmuseum.org n.d.) The Vase is carbon dated as of manufactured around 530 B.C. and belonged to the vast culture of Greeks. The painting style of the Amphora above matches with other works of the â€Å"Euphiletos Painter.† (Hyman 2006) The figures on one side of vase materialized as black shadows in opposition to the orange of the fired up clay, the details (fig 1.0) were carved into the beautification prior to firing the sculpture into the Kiln. (Hyman 2006) The rest of the Vase is adorned with slip that transformed into black color when exposed to heat in the kiln. The wholly established black-figure method, with additional crimson and white particulars and notching for sketches and particulars was invented in â€Å"Corinth† at some stage in the early 7th B.C. and lately launched into â€Å"Attica† almost post a gap of generation. (Camp 2004) Subsequently it thrived until the finish of the 6th BC. The â€Å"red-figure method† (Hyman 2006) which was conceived in 530 B.C. overturned this practice by way of the Vases being decorated black and the outlines painted with bright crimson colors, as in the case of above illustrated Vase. On front side of this vase, decorated by the â€Å"Euphiletos Painter† is Athena, â€Å"the Greek goddess of perception, combat, the arts, commerce, honesty and talent† (Gates 1972) equipped with a helmet and shield together with holding in the air a spear which is belligerently tramping to the fore. Beneath the arm of Athena, there is â€Å"the snake-fringed edge of her aegis, the goatskin with the

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT - Essay Example Through these, the company has remained in position to control their finances, their demand, supply rotating around labor supply, the raw materials supply and even the supply to the market has remained controlled hence influencing the business and the company’s growth. The company dominates a value chain that with its Chandlerian model in industrial administration aspects. An integrated company has a high level of vertical integrity applicable in defining their brand to the market. The sector matrix through the dynamics held internally has grown to have a positive impact to the general performance of the organization. Their targets of mass markets and standardized products dominant in quality make them a company to reckon with in the automotive industry. Through these, the demand for the company’s products and their supply remains on a positive scale weighing well for the owners of the company. The positive results it boosts of result from these making it a good example for the case on sector matrix. A bad example on the sector matrix is that of the Lehman Brothers. A company that was closed down due to the poor management of their supply and demand factors. The failure of the company was leveled on the financial crisis that the world faced during the great depressions and financial turmoil experienced in 2008. The poor preparation effects and the failure to detect and proactively plan from down times also mark the company’s failure. The demand factor was handled well by the company. The challenges met that drew the company down included the supply effects. The failure to control and sustain the demand and the pressure exerted on the financial position of the company and the supply chain changes made the company close down. Aspects of sector matrix aim at controlling factors of demand and supply. The demand for the services that the company offered was high though at

Influence of McDonald's Company on the State of the US Economy Essay

Influence of McDonald's Company on the State of the US Economy - Essay Example The primary challenge currently facing McDonald’s is the worsening state of the US economy, as concerns mount about a possible recession. In late January, the company reported a $1.2 billion fourth-quarter profit but warned of weakness in the US market. Same-restaurant sales were essentially flat in Dec. 2007, sparking fears that the one-month result might portend a trend. It was the growth in international sales that allowed for the company’s overall gains. The American market is the company’s largest and most crucial, with over 14,000 locations (â€Å"McDonald’s Posts Profit†). A Feb. 8 company press release reinforced the concerns about the domestic market, with US comparable sales only up 1.9 percent, while for Europe and the Asia/Pacific, Middle East and Africa bloc, sales were up 8.2 and 7.8 percent, respectively (â€Å"Strong Global Results†). If the current US slowdown leaks into the global marketplace, companies like McDonald’s may no longer by able to count on foreign sales to bolster the bottom line. The economic woes in America are tightening many pocketbooks and forcing even habitual fast-food customers to cut back. After decades of economic expansion and ever-growing consumer expenditures, signs are legion that the days of easy credit are over and that belt-tightening measures are becoming more the norm than the exception across the American landscape. The unfolding housing bubble collapse has had a major impact, as have continued nationwide job contractions. Even value-oriented businesses like McDonald’s are likely to be hit by potential customers staying home rather than coming out to their restaurants (Goodman 1). In addition, food prices have been rising steadily as have oil and gasoline costs, putting a severe squeeze on the average American consumer. In February, consumer confidence fell to its lowest level since 1992, according to a closely watched national survey. All of this is causing consumers to cut back on non-essential items (Grynbaum 1). Food is not a non-essential item, but the challenge to McDonald’s management is to revive stagnant domestic sales by convincing more potential consumers that they are better served by visiting their local restaurant as opposed to making meals at home. Once a significant enough number of people become convinced of this, it would help to break same-restaurant sales in the US out of its current flat-growth pattern.

APA Annotation for 4 articles Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

APA Annotation for 4 articles - Research Paper Example The paper succeeds in demonstrating that the perception of Muslim women that is portrayed in the book undermines the need to address the patriarchal societies that make it difficult for the girl child to be empowered. Instead, it shows that the background of the author and financial motivations mostly drives the message. The paper is useful when evaluating the situation of Arabic Muslim girls in the United States of America. Although the paper serves as a strong critique of the book, it has failed to appreciate the truths in the novel. The Breadwinner has succeeded in contributing to the conversation about the role of religion in undermining the faith for equality in the society. The Arabic students in the country would identify with the argument made in the paper. In particular, they will identify with the fact that the institutional structure and culture where they learn often undermines the role of women. Moreover, they will agree that the ‘girl in need of salvation’ narrative that is present in the book undermines their quest for recognition in the society. , Erick and Zaidi focus on how the media covered the murder of a young Muslim girl in Mississauga, Ontario. The incident occurred in December 7. In particular, they have focused on how the media shifted the conversation from concerns over a tragic family event to a larger topic, the clash of civilizations. The authors also focused on tolerance and the negative effect that the term has on the society. The paper has highlighted the cultural implications involved in the debate over the hijab. Since Canada and America share many cultural similarities, the paper will be informative in shaping conversations on the topic in America. The paper highlights the ethical implications in the society. The authors have succeeded in highlighting the impact of an event in

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Management - Essay Example Since then, the debate has been on in favour and against of the thought and more particularly to find the right balance where profits really benefit the society. Counter extreme to the argument was the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility which stated that businesses are required to respond to societal needs in other forms as well than just earning profit to maximise employment. Businesses have to some extend accept this counter thought with further extension in idea regarding maximising shareholder and owner’s wealth and many other sub ideas. However, the finding of the real right balance between the corners is yet being debated as no measure has yet been developed to perfect solution. PRIMARY OBJECTIVE OF MANAGEMENT- THEORATICAL REFERENCES AND THEIR ANALYSIS To state in one sentence primary objective of the business is to benefit society, at the same time remember the fact that owners and shareholders are also part of society and hence, not at the cost of the sharehold ers’ benefit. The debate shall focus more on the fact that how and to what this benefit extends shall be translated. Exploring the basic idea of Friedman who stated that the aim of business is to achieve maximum profits within boundaries of law and this is how society is benefitted, one finds this idea satisfactory unless there comes any law that does not support societal interest or even more questioning does there exist any law that goes against the interest of society? All the laws are made in larger interest of society and with this it can stressed that Friedman’s thought had no flaw. However, most of the literature questioned the profit maximisation part with taking it to the point that contrast to the societal concern and scope of debate enlarged in direction of benefit of firm or society as whole and how it should be transferred. Considering this school of thought, more appropriate and concrete thought requires it be benefit or wealth of all stakeholders, where stakeholders include every person who is directly or indirectly connected with organisation. This stance has no flaw as the basic idea constrains to remain operational within. (Stakeholder Analysis) To support the argument, consider the example of Marks and Spencer. UK retail giant with global existence recent matter charging higher price to its women lingerie product stating the reason of higher cost and then higher tax was highly negated on social media website where more than 14000 people joined the cause for protest. The protest ultimately forced the giant to bow down accept the decision as their mistake while taking back decision, giving excess discounts to all customer of that product class as well as apologies to the society. To extract from this example is the fact that if it the said argument would have been true in place then M&S’s decision should have been appreciated as the giant only aimed to cover the excess cost incurred on the product, that would have added to its profitability , though in its respective share only. While, people who protested just joined the cause for bias attitude towards certain people and of course not all were affected by the decision. Hence, what needs be made the basis of maximisation is the stakeholders’ wealth that is always in position to affect the position of firm (Bejou, 2011). From the given image, it can also be concluded that stakeholders lie in levels. Firm

European E-commerce Law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

European E-commerce Law - Case Study Example The software costs 50, with a postage and packing charge of 5 if sent via DVD. Brian lives in another EU country (not the UK). He goes to Alfred's website with the intention of downloading a copy of Alfred's latest computer program for use in his own small business. He clicks on a "Download Now" button, inputs his address and credit card details, and is presented with Alfred's contract terms as a 'Click Wrap' agreement. Brian scrolls down through the agreement without reading it, clicks an 'I accept' button at the bottom of the screen, and downloads the software. He then begins using it. assy lives in the UK. She goes to Alfred's website with the intention of buying a copy of Alfred's latest computer program on DVD, for her own personal use. She clicks on an "Order Now" button, inputs her address and credit card details, clicks a button that says 'Submit', and places her order. When the software arrives on DVD five days later, Cassy puts the DVD into her computer and is presented with Alfred's contract terms as a 'Click Wrap' agreement. Cassy scrolls down through the agreement and notices the term "To the extent allowed by law, Alfsoft Ltd is not liable for the results of using this software". ... Cassy suffers an economic loss of 100, which is the cost of taking her computer to a local servicer to get the virus removed and Alfred's software uninstalled. Both Brian and Cassy contact Alfred, demanding to be compensated for the losses they have incurred. eanwhile, a few weeks after registering the domain name Alfsoft.com, Alfred receives a 'cease & desist' letter from lawyers representing a US software company, Alpha-Software LLC, who own the trade mark Alphasoft and registered the domain name Alphasoft.com in 2001. The letter alleges that Alfsoft.com is confusingly similar to Alphasoft.com and demands that Alfred transfer Alfsoft.com to Alpha-Software, otherwise they will take action to enforce a transfer of the domain name under the UDRP. Alfred approaches you for legal advice. Introduction Contracts have become ubiquitous in people's everyday lives. Unconsciously, they enter into different types of contractual agreements - when traveling by bus or rail, when purchasing goods and accepting services and in carrying duties regulated by contracts of employment. Contracts are so common and widespread that the ordinary man or woman in the street does not realise the legal intricacies and involvedness of a transaction they have entered into. As legal experts are aware, these transactions are not as lawfully simple as their everyday nature suggests. They require evidence of a consensus in item, or a meeting of the minds, achieved by a clear and unambiguous offer and an unqualified acceptance of that offer. Fortunately, society has developed special rules to allow people to determine what the exact terms of the contract are, when it was formed and where it is governed. The Internet is

Symbolism in Shirley Jackson's The Lottery Essay

Symbolism in Shirley Jackson's The Lottery - Essay Example The story is a stark reminder of how hazardous and, sometimes, downright lethal ritualistic following can be. Throughout the story, Jackson has used symbolic references, with most that refer to death in one form or another, all the while pointing at the futility of holding on to mindless ritual. Just starting out with the title of the story, The Lottery, the reader comes to believe that something pleasant is about to take place as most readers think of the lottery as something most people look forward to winning. However, the term here is not used in the normal sense of the word, but is rather symbolic of the twisted logic of most people whereby they think that giving a pleasant name to something would cause it to be looked upon favorably. What is more, Jackson has also used names of people in the story as symbols. The lottery was carried by Mr. Summers, whose name is symbolic of the irony that the story is replete with. Summers are associated with idyllic and happy times, with child ren frolicking around and everyone having a good time out in the sun. However, as someone who is drawing the lots to decide who gets to be stoned to death, Mr. Summers is not at all as pleasant and joyful as summers ought to be. Then, there is the postmaster, Mr. Graves, whose name is symbolic of the death that is to come as a result of the lottery. Shirley Jackson has also used objects as symbols in this story.

Why are human relationships potentially healing Essay

Why are human relationships potentially healing - Essay Example Study of both empirical and subjective theory of behavioral and psychological aspects has been undertaken along with its co-relations with neuroscience on human interactions. The practical significance of positive interpersonal relation across the various spheres of human interaction influencing and affecting ones lifestyle is explained with relevant examples for understanding the basic principles. The paper explores and examines the various researches and the theories concerning the incontestable and affirmative healing effects of human relationships. Keywords: Positive Psychology, Interpersonal relation, Communication and human relations, kinship and family relations. Man is unpredictable by nature with instincts not bounded in defined parameters. A person may react differently in different situations and circumstances depending on a lot of factors which are far more complex for the human mind to discern. Hence it has been rightly said that Human relationship is the most complex an d complicated relation between individuals and groups. However, one cannot presume to do away with authentic research and surveys to understand the dynamism of human relations. In fact, the human relationship does have the healing capability that could not be cured and by any other medicines. That is one of the reasons why many people urge to go for therapy, counselling and consultation. One of the main results of our fast paced mechanical life is loneliness. This is often the main cause of various social, cultural and psychological disorders today. Money being the driven force backed by the media hype increasing the demands for more better life and livelihood we are compelled to become slaves of capitalization. The outcome is that we tend to loose our basic foundation. We have started neglecting our family-sometimes intentionally and often unconsciously. This hampers the bondage that we had. Expectations never become a reality and frustrations crop in. Man becomes lonely and gives in to quick, false escapes to intake of drugs, cigarettes and alcohol. There has been many scientific research and discussions assessing the harmful effects on human isolation leading to trauma and mental depressions which affects the physical health too. This is a cycle. Therefore in order escape from this one have to be back to one’s own den and seek to develop and nurture the human bonds. Man is a social being and the human brain is the most â€Å"social organ†. (Cazolino, Louis, â€Å"The Neuroscience of human relationships,† 2006). Through several studies and research on human brain it became evident how the human brain develop and change depending on the human interactions and relations. Positively, when the human reacts with positive elements it demonstrates a healing and healthy development of the brain cells and membranes which in a way has the capacity to ameliorate and relieve the stress and strains of our lives. Negatively if scope for proper healthy human interaction and relationship development is not given the priority the ill-effects of such behaviours like autism, borderline cases, insomnia are inevitable. The break down of join family living may be one of the factors. Moreover, in recent times we find the breakdown in the institution of marriage itself. Recent study and survey has proved that a child born out of healthy parents having loving marital relationships are much healthier and meritorious than those who are born in single parent background. Therefore to be healthy and stay healthy one should not one look into ways of how to improve and develop one’s relationship with individuals at various levels. Within ones family, one needs to grow and develop the feelings of love,

Utilitarianism Notes Essay Example for Free

Utilitarianism Notes Essay – – – – – – – No Absolutes Morality Depends on individual circumstances Happiness is the most important thing Quality and Quantity of Happiness need to be taken into account The Measure of Usefulness or Fittingness for purpose an action may have Teleological Ethical theories such as Utilitarianism tend to rely on the principle of utility It is the way of measuring how useful an action is in bringing about the consequences that we desire Equality The Happiness of each individual person is equally important No Persons happiness is more important than anothers You can work out the right action mathematically. Not absolute rules but we would all make the same decision under the circumstances. No rules. Principles are used to govern right and wrong rather than rules in Act Utilitarianism In Rule Utilitarianism, J. S. Mill introduced some beneficial rules, which acted as guidelines Hedonistic Principle of Utility †¢ Egalitarian – – – †¢ †¢ †¢ Hedonistic Calculus – – – – Anti-Legalistic Harm Principle – – Put forward by Mill to avoid restricting the freedom of the minority. It states that each person can do whatever they want, as long as it does not negatively impact on the freedom of other people Teleological Ethics. †¢ In order to understand Utilitarianism, you must first study Teleological Ethics, which share many principles with Utilitarianism. †¢ Teleological Ethics is to judge whether or not an action is moral by purely looking at the result or consequence of the action. †¢ This is also known as Consequentialism. Teleological Ethics †¢ In Teleological Ethics, there are no moral absolutes. †¢ Teleological Ethics only consider the consequence of an action, and disregard the motive or circumstances. †¢ Teleological Theories are consequentialist (based on consequences) †¢ Actions only have Instrumental Value, not intrinsic value. (see table below to see definitions) Problems with Teleological Ethics †¢ How do you decide what a morally good or bad consequence is? †¢ There are many conflicting factors †¢ We cant tell the future, we have no way of knowing what the consequences will be! The Principle of Utility †¢ Teleological Ethical theories tend to rely on the Principle of Utility †¢ This is defined as the measure of usefulness or fittingness for purpose an action may have †¢ A Principle of Utility is a way of measuring how useful an action is in bringing about the consequences that we desire †¢ The Principle of Utility of Utilitarianism is Happiness. This is for the following reasons: – It is universally valued and desirable – Subjective (opinion matters) – However, it is also open to abuse as it cannot be easily defined. †¢ This links to Hedonism Hedonism †¢ Hedonism is the belief that happiness is more important than anything else †¢ Pleasure or happiness are often interchangeable and used to mean the same thing â€Å"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as what we shall do. † -David Hume Before Utilitarianism. †¢ Hume linked Utility with Happiness †¢ It is difficult to define Happiness †¢ Aristotle saw no difference between living well (flourishing) and living normally. Well being is part of the good life. This can include comfort and enjoyment Act Utilitarianism Act Utilitarianism is the earliest form of Utilitarianism. It was first put forward by scholar Jeremy Bentham †¢ Act Utilitarianism is a Relativist theory, which means that nothing is always right or wrong and the choice of actions depend on circumstances, which allows flexibility and is intuitive. †¢ It also rejects God, as there is no proof as to whether or not God exists. It also rejects the Bible and religion in general. This removes the need for faith which makes it a theory that can be supported by both religious and secular people. †¢ There are no absolute rules in Act Utilitarianism, which means that there is no unfairness and is a more flexible theory. This makes the people more important than the rules. †¢ Act Utilitarianism uses a Hedonic Calculus to work out the right action for people to do. This creates a simple, objective, mathematical, tangible and logical way of working out what is right and wrong. †¢ It is also a Hedonistic theory, this means that happiness is more important than anything else. This is good because we all agree that happiness is good, and an objective base for morality (meaning of life) which fits in well with modern society. â€Å"The good is that which will bring about the greatest sum of pleasure and the least sum of pain for the greatest number† -Jeremy Bentham Hedonic Calculus. †¢ The Hedonic Calculus is a formula that can be used to work out the right action mathematically †¢ It is simple, objective, mathematical, logical and tangible. †¢ The Hedonic Calculus uses the following factors to establish the presence of happiness: Rule Utilitarianism Rule Utilitarianism superseded Benthams Act Utilitarianism. It was put forward by scholar John Stuart Mill, who had learned about Utilitarianism for most of his life, as his father James Mill was a colleague of Jeremy Bentham. Rule Utilitarianism. †¢ Mill argued that not all forms of happiness or pleasure were of equal value, which was seemingly what Bentham was implying †¢ He also recognised that, in life, it is easy to settle for the more immediate and sensual pleasures, rather than the nobler and more refined ones. †¢ Mill goes beyond the Hedonic Calculus of Act Utilitarianism by recognising that there are many different ways of assessing its value †¢ Mill was concerned to link his utilitarian theory with Jesus teachings by claiming that to love your neighbour as yourself constitutes the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality. †¢ Mill also suggested a positive place for rules within an overall utilitarian approach. His one rule that he introduced was known as the Harm Principle it stated that everyone should be able to do what would make them happy, unless the majority of people affected, are negatively affected. †¢ Mill stated that general rules such as the Harm Principle should be obeyed as they give overall benefit to society, but they can be broken in exceptional circumstances. â€Å"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied† -John Stuart Mill. Strong and Weak Rule Utilitarianism †¢ Strong Rule Utilitarianism holds that one should never break a rule that is established on utilitarian principles †¢ Weak Rule Utilitarianism holds that there may be situations where breaking the rules is acceptable, in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number, but generally keeping the rules (eg. Telling a lie is generally wrong, but there may be circumstances where it acceptable in order to bring about the greatest good for the greatest number). Rule Utilitarianism Preference Utilitarianism †¢ Preference Utilitarianism superseded Mills Rule Utilitarianism. It was put forward by several scholars, who advocated it over a period of time. †¢ They are: – Henry Sidgwick (1838-1900) – R. M. Hare (1919-2002) – Peter Singer (1946-present) †¢ Preference Utilitarianism uses Preference over Happiness or Pleasure as the Principle of Utility. †¢ Preference Utilitarianism also takes other factors into account, such as duty †¢ This means that most people would get what they wanted. Prima Facie Obligations †¢ â€Å"Prima Facie† – At First Sight †¢ This is the idea that we do not value strangers as highly as friends or family †¢ Most of us judge morality as ‘agent relatve’, we will favour some people above others. †¢ Utilitarianism requires us to judge all people equally and not consider Prima Facie obligations †¢ This is a criticism of Utilitarianism as to abandon prima facie duties seems to go against all instinct †¢ Some people argue that people should be treated as ends in themselves and not means to an end. †¢ It is necessary for a utilitarian to defend against this position. Motive Utilitarianism †¢ Henry Sidgwick put forward a theory of Utilitarianism which became known as ‘Motive Utilitarianism’ †¢ It states an action can be considered to be good if its motive was to bring about the greatest happiness for the greatest number, regardless of the actual outcome (which links to Situation Ethics).

Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods

Is Psychology a Science? Theories and Research Methods Is psychology a science? Discuss with reference to scientific method and bias in psychological research. Psychology can be viewed in a variety of ways as accords to the many schools of thought that pertain to psychology. From its origins in philosophy, psychology has undergone a variety of classifications. The major scientific paradigms born from philosophical enquiry were the school of empiricism and the school of rationality. Essentially, these two approaches dictated the direction that psychology must take if it was to be regarded as scientific. One of the first schools of thought in psychology was heavily concerned with its reputation as a scientifically validity enquiry. This was to be known as the behavioural approach to psychology or the behavioural perspective. The behavioural perspective was devised by Watson who used observation to determine evidence. As a consequence of according to the governing principles of objective scientific research, Watson rejected the notion of any internal psychological mechanisms as he believed that this could not be quantifiably measured (Miell et al, 2002). All Watson was interested in was the observable external phenomena, which meant the analysis of behaviour. Consequently, Watson placed an emphasis on psychology as primarily a learning phenomenon. A fundamental distinction that occurs within behaviourism is within this role of learning. Essentially, two approaches formed called classical and operant conditioning. Research into classical conditioning was defined by physiologist Pavlov who was also concerned with scientific analysis. Pavlov observed that in relation to certain stimuli dog’s behaviour could be conditioned through association (Miell et al, 2002). Using a dogs’ biological respons e to hunger, Pavlov was ble to scientifically demonstrate that there was a basic relationship between an observable stimulus and the animals learned response. Whilst in operant conditioning, Skinner was able to ascertain that there was a pre-conceived notion in the environment that led the animal to learn through a process of trial and error, which led to observable schedules of behaviour (Skinner, 1946/1990). In both classical and operant conditioning we can see that learning is defined as a scientifically observable and so provable modification of behaviour caused by association and manipulation of the environment. However, this approach clearly lacks greater insight into the role of the mind, its cognitive processes and also suffers from being based upon animal and not human studies. The cognitive approach addresses the human capacity to categorise, generalise and conceptualise certain phenomena. Primarily concerned with the functioning of the mind itself it engaged in the scientific analysis notions such as memory, perception and categorisation (Miell et al, 2002). Unhappy at the flaws in behavioural psychology, cognitive psychologist Bruner, devised a test to see how we mentally constructed categories. Unlike the objective approach of conditioning, Bruner suggested that this was an engaging intelligent procedure that was performed by way of hypothesis testing stages of acceptance and rejection based upon trial (Bruner et al, 1956). To be valued as scientific, a test involving a variety of shapes were used in a variety of conditions. Some of these conditions shared the same number of shapes, some the same colour of shape, whilst others shared the same number of borders. No two varieties were identical. From the results of this experiment, Bruner was able to sur mise that there were tw forms of cognition that had been present. Successive scanning, which tested one hypothesis at a time and conservative scanning, which sought to eliminate classes of hypotheses (Bruner et al, 1956). Unlike the behavioural approach, we can see from the findings and classifications of these studies that an attempt is being made to understand the intelligent human mind with regards to categorisation. However, categorisation is not accepted by everyone in the field of science and its objective validity does suffer from critical enquiry. For instance, addressing the empiricism versus rationalism argument, many have argued that the categories in the study are innate rather than learned (Chomsky Fodor, 1980). This strengthens the behavioural notion that the conceptual structure of the mind is open to interpretation, and so cannot be considered an entirely scientific approach to psychology. Another school of thought within psychology is that concerned with the social aspect. This is primarily interested in the role that social influence has on our behaviour. For instance, in the findings of a test put forward by Sherif, we can see the extent to which people will use the word of others and the resource of group norms to ascertain a truth about something. This is an important concept with regards to the influence of social norms as we can observe that our psychology is influenced by our conformity to social norms (Sherif, 1936). Similarly, a test devised by Asch revealed that conformity of an individual to a norm was indicative of individual identity (Asch, 1956). Similarly, research by Baron indicated that through a lack of responsibility that an individual felt to correct and deviate from a social norm an account could be made to configure their potential to conformity (Baron et al, 1956). Essentially, these tests revealed that the role of responsibility was based upon conscriptions o social norms, attitudes, beliefs and ideologies. However, these findings suffer from being based upon social norms and cultural constructs such as identities and beliefs and so cannot be considered universal, objective principles that would accord to the main scientific schools such as physics and chemistry. Another key school of thought is psycho-analysis and developmental psychology. Stemmed from Freudian theory, psycho-analysis and developmental psychology is concerned with the development of the subject’s personality in relation to underlying motives and mainly sexually based desires and conflicts (Freud, 1917/1973). Using a notion of base primordial drives, Freud put forward various schemas of development that dictated our personality and variations in our behaviours, such as conforming to social norms. The agents at work within these drives and the accompanying stages of development were commonly referred to as defence mechanisms. Defence mechanisms were put forward as being ways in which the subject could cope with the real and disturbing psychological issues that they had to face throughout life, such as anxiety and confusion. These mechanisms consisted of such concepts as denial, projection and regression and are commonly established psychological phenomena that infor the core rationale of developmental and psycho-dynamic paradigms (Freud, 1917/1973). Although these factors are well established concepts within mainstream psychology, they still depend upon a structural paradigm to be understood. Much criticism has come in the form of humanistic approaches who have suggested that these models of development are dependent upon the objectifying of the subject and that this approach is a convenient theoretical model rather than being scientifically accurate. Another school of thought is one that actually rejects objective science at its core. The phenomenological approach to psychological study is primarily based upon perception and subjectivity. Formed as a way of countering the empirical approach to psychology that had led to the field of cognitive psychology, phenomenological psychology suggested that knowledge was learned entirely from the external environment via lessons that were encapsulated in our experience (Merleau-Ponty, 1964). Detaching from the scientific notion of tabula rasa, which had dominated the opposing stance to the rationality of science, Merleau-Ponty looked at the notion of perception and in particular how it was informed by phenomena, rather than through observation of objects taken from their natural environment. Fundamental to this approach is the notion that everything we experience accords to the phenomena in which it is presented, and so objective science cannot tell us about our psychological experience. Th is approach most ertainly rejects psychology, as well as many other enquiries, as a scientific pursuit. We can see from these schools of thought that to call psychology a pursuit of objective scientific fact is flawed. However, we can also see that there is a strong emphasis in each case placed upon validity. Even the rejection of objectively defined scientific principles shown by the phenomenological approach gives indication that validity and limitation of enquiry are paramount, which is surely the premise of scientific analysis. Bibliography Asch, S, E., (1956) Studies of independence and conformity. Psychology Monologues, 70. Baron, R, S., Vandello, J, A., Brunsman, B. (1996) The Forgotten Variable in Conformity Research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70. Bruner, J, S., Goodnow, J, J., and Austin, G, A., (1956) A Study of Thinking New York: John Wiley and Sons. Chomsky, N., and Fodor, J, A., (1980) Statement of the Paradox, in Piatelli Palmarini, M. (ed.). Freud, S., (1917/1973) Introductory lecture on Psychoanalysis. Harmondsworth; Penguin. Merleau-Ponty (1964) The Primacy of Perception London: Routledge Miell, D., Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (2002) Mapping Psychology 1. Milton Keynes, Open University. Sherif, M., (1936) The Psychology of Social Norms. New Yoprk: Harper. Skinner, B, F., (1946/1990) Walden Two London: Collier Macmillan. Cell membrane: Structure and purpose Cell membrane: Structure and purpose BIOPHYSICAL CHEMISTRY ESSAY: CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND PURPOSE Introduction Cell membrane is a biological barrier that separates the interior part of the cell (i.e. the Cytoplasm, nuclei and the other cell organelle) from the outer environment, thus permits cellular individuality and also gives shape to the cell. This membrane is a mixture of lipids, protein and carbohydrates, therefore is a complex structure. The membrane is semi-permeable and thus only allows selective ions and molecules to go through it into the cell or leave the cell. This is achieved by formation of concentration gradient across the membrane, which many biological processes depend upon. The movement of the biological molecules across the membrane is either passive, which happens without the input of cellular energy or active transport that requires the cell to use energy. The cell membrane also helps in maintaining cell potential. Proteins of the cell membrane form the essential component of the biological membrane since they function as pores, channels or transporters. Proteins thus have the capability of selective passage across the lipid bilayer. Some proteins that are embedded in the cell membrane act as molecular signals and therefore carry out communication. They act as receptors and receive signals from other cells or from the external environment and elicit a response in the cell. Some proteins function as markers which aid in identification of unknown cells. The membrane also aids in intercellular interactions. The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane is only a few nanometres thick and is not permeable to most molecules that are soluble in water, and hence acts as a barrier to regulate the transport of ions, proteins and other molecules through the membrane. Since the phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to many ions, it helps in the regulation of salt concentration and pH by regulating the pumping of ions in and out of the cell via proteins called ion channel pumps. The Fluid mosaic model is the most widely accepted biological membrane model that was proposed in the year 1972 by Singer and Nicolson. Floating in the phospholipid bilayer are molecules of protein, which is analogous to icebergs floating in a sea. The model is referred to as fluid because of the lateral motion of the bilayer macromolecules, and is referred to as mosaic because of the different molecular components [1][2][3][4]. Purpose of cell membrane Cell membrane performs the following functions: Membrane Transport of Small Molecules: Transport proteins present in the bilayer can transport polar molecules through the membrane. There are various types of membrane transport proteins: Uniport This simply moves the solute from one side to the other side of the membrane. Cotransport This system moves two solutes simultaneously across the lipid bilayer. They are two types of this transport-symport (solutes are sent in the same direction) and antiport (solutes are passed in opposite directions). These transports are come under the category of passive transport where no energy expenditure is involved. Here the solute moves from a higher concentration to a lower concentration gradient. Examples of this include channel proteins, which allow the solute to pass if they are of a specific charge or size. Carrier proteins bind to the solute and help in its movement through the bilayer.[5] There are two main categories of transport of molecules are there in cells: Active transport Passive transport Small molecules like oxygen, ethanol and carbon dioxide pass through the membrane by simple diffusion (passive transport) down a concentration gradient. Transport of macromolecules like proteins, polynucleotides and polysaccharides is done by active transport using ATP, against the concentration gradient. There are two types of active transport : 1) Exocytosis Process by which waste substances are removed from the cell by vesicle formation and expulsion [6]. 2) Endocytosis- The molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward, thus forming a vesicle. Phagocytosis is a type of endocytosis where the whole cell is engulfed. Pinocytosis is another type when the external fluid is engulfed. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when the material to be transported binds to specific molecules in the membrane. Example: transport of insulin and cholesterol into animal cells [6]. Cell signalling across the membrane Transmembrane signalling occurs through the generation of a number of signals like cyclic nucleotides, calcium, phosphoinositides and diacylglycerol. Specific signals of neurotransmitters hormones and immunoglobulins bind to the specific receptors on the membrane, which are mostly integral membrane proteins. This is the Ca2+-phosphatidylinositol signalling pathway which plays a major role in transmembrane signalling in a large number of different cell types. This pathway leads to the activation of G-proteins. This initiates activation of phospholipase C and the subsequent formation of DAG and IP3 which triggers the generation of repetitive [Ca2+] spikes [7]. Intercellular intractions Gap junctions are structures that allow the small molecules that are up to ~ 1200 Da to be transported from one cells cytoplasm to the other. These structures contain proteins called connexins. Six connexins form a hemiconnexin and two hemiconnexins form a connexon. These connexions in the gap junction form cylindrical bridges through which substances are transported between cells [1][8]. The Fluid mosaic Model: This model is the widely accepted membrane model. The membrane has a biomolecular lipid bilayer layer. There are proteins that are inserted in it or bound to the surface. Integral membrane protein is the proteins that are embedded in the membrane they play a key role as transporters for various molecules that cannot enter through the cell membrane. The integral proteins have an extra-cellular domain and cytoplasmic domain and are separated by a non-polar region that holds it tightly in the membrane. Proteins that are loosely bound to the to the outer membrane are called the peripheral proteins. Many of the proteins that are present and almost all the glycolipids have an externally oligosaccharides chains that are exposed outside the membrane [1][9]. The membrane fluidity very much depends on the lipids concentration in the membrane. The hydrophobic chains of the fatty acids are much aligned therefore giving it a stiff structure. The transition(Tm) is the temperature at which the transition takes place from ordered to disordered state, this is the change that happens in the hydrophobic side chain. Cholesterol affects the fluidity of the membrane. It increases fluidity below Tm and decreases fluidity above Tm. Modifications to the fluid mosaic model state that the lipids and proteins in the membrane are not randomly distributed. Randomness occurs when interaction energy of these molecules are close to their thermal energies. Since interaction energies cannot be in a narrow range due to large number of interactions, there is very less chance for randomness to occur. Hence the model was found to be more mosaic than fluid [10]. The modified view of membrane model is shown in figure 7[10]. Specialised structures in the membrane: There are some special features in the membrane like lipid rafts, caveolae, tight junction, desmososmes, adherens junctions and microvilli. These are found in the recent years of research. Lipids Raft is the area in the membrane that has relatively higher concentration of cholesterol, sphingo-lipids and some proteins, than the other parts of the membrane. It plays a major role in cell signal transduction. This is under research that if we increase the amount of this and clustering them closely may increase the overall efficiency of the cell. Caveolae are special types of lipid rafts. Many of them have protein called caveolin-1 that is involved in the process. They were observed under electron microscope and were found to be flask-shaped. Proteins that are detected in this also play a role in signal transduction, example is insulin. Proteins found in this also play in role in folate receptor. This field is a growing interest for research. Tight Junctions are present on the surface of the membrane and their major function is to prevent diffusion of macromolecules between cells. They are present below the apical surface of the epithelial cells. They are made up of various proteins including occludin, various claudins and junctional adhesion molecules [1]. Desmosomes also called macula adherens are the specialised cell structures for cell to cell adhesion. Their function is to resist shearing force. They are mostly found in simple and stratified squamous epithelium [11]. Adherens junctions are the proteins that usually occur at cell- cell junction .They are made up of proteins like cadherins, ÃŽÂ ²-catenin, ÃŽÂ ±-catenin and sometimes delta catenin. Their function is to provide strong adhesion between adjacent cells. They hold the cardiac muscle cells firmly together as the heart beats and do not allow it to collapse [12]. Microvilli are very small finger like structures found on the cell membrane. They are mainly found on the epithelial cells, they increase the surface area of the cells therefore increasing the absorptive capacity of the cells. Actin filament extends from the end of these microvilli [13]. Components of cell membrane Cell membrane is a complex structure and is composed of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Different cell membranes have different compositions. Lipids Phospholipids: There are two major class of phospholipids out of which in the cell membrane the phosphoglycerides are the most commonly found ones. Phospholglycerides are esters that are made up of two fatty acids, phosphoric acid and a trifunctional alcohol. Phosphoglycerides with sphingomyelin have Sphingosine backbone instead of glycerol. They play a role in signal transduction. They are prominent in myelin sheaths [1]. Glycosphingolipids: These are sugar containing lipids that are present in the membrane. They have a backbone made of ceramides. These are amphipathic molecules consisting of a ceramide lipid anchor linked to an oligosaccharide chain of variable length and composition [1]. They are required for proper functioning of nervous system. Determining their function will help to understand neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, immune function and diseases of metabolism [14]. STEROLS The most import sterol in the membrane is cholesterol. Proteins in cell membrane Integral membrane proteins: also called intrinsic proteins t has its some part of the protein embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. Most of these proteins have hydrophobic side chains that interact with membrane phospholipids fatty acyl groups. They are called transmembrane proteins if they one or more membrane spanning domains. The transmembrane proteins of the membrane spanning domains are made up of ÃŽÂ ± helices or multiple ÃŽÂ ² strands [8]. These proteins are made up of two hydrophilic and one hydrobhobic region. The hydrophobic region traverses through the bilayer. They are asymmetric in nature. The transmembrane region of many integral membrane proteins is made up of a bundle of hydrophobic ÃŽÂ ±-helices [7]. Their major role is as transporters, and are also structural membrane-anchoring domains. They function by transporting hydrophilic molecules through the membrane. Many Integral Proteins Contain Multiple Transmembrane ÃŽÂ ± lpha Helices [8]. Examples: Insulin receptor, Glycophorin, Rhodopsin, CD36 and GPR30. Peripheral membrane proteins: They are also called as extrinsic proteins; they do not interact with hydrophobic core of the membrane phospholipid bilayer. They are bound to the membrane by interaction with the intergral proteins or are bound to the bilayer outer lipids polar heads groups. They are only present in the cytosolic region of the cell membrane. They play an important role in signal transduction. Some peripheral proteins are localized to the surface of the plasma membrane, these are called exoplasmic proteins. Peripheral enzymes are involved in the synthesis of different membrane components like lipids , cell wall oligosaccharides , or proteins. Membrane peripheral proteins are of five types: Structural proteins, channel proteins, transport or carrier proteins, enzymes and receptor proteins. Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are attached to membrane lipids and proteins as short oligosaccharide chains. Proteins attached with sugar molecules are called glycoproteins and lipids attached with sugar molecules are called glycolipids. The carbohydrates form a protective coat called glycocalyx around the cell, which helps in cell recognition. Glycoprotein Glycoproteins are formed by glycosylation of proteins. There are two types: N-glycosylation (sugar links to nitrogen atom of asparagines residue) and O-glycosylation (sugar attaches to hydroxyl group of serine or threonine rsidues). Examples of glycoproteins found in the body are mucins, collagens, transferrins, immunogloulins, etc. Glycolipids Glycolipids are lipids linked to oligosaccharide chains. Examples include glycosphingolipids which contain a hydrophobic ceramide, N-acylsphingosine and saccharides. They are generally located on the outer membrane surface. The composition of the carbohydrate chain depends on the type of the cell and development of the organism.[9] Refrences: [1] Harper [2] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellMembranes.html [3] http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/BioBookCELL2.html [4] http://www2.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobooktransp.html [5] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/cell_membranes.html [6] http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/molecule_transport.html [7] Chay, Lee, Fan, 1995 Appearance of Phase-locked Wenchbach-like Rhythms, Devils Staircase and Universality in Intracellular Calcium Spikes in Non-excitable Cell Models [9] The Fluid Mosaic Model of the Structure of Cell Membranes Cell membranes are viewed as two-dimensional solutions of oriented globular proteins and lipids. S. J. Singer and Garth L. Nicolson [10] http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm [11] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmosome [12] http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/J/Junctions.html [13] Krause J. William (July 2005). KrauseHYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37HYPERLINK http://books.google.com/books?id=cRayoldYrcUCpg=PA37s Essential Human Histology for Medical Students. Universal-Publishers. pp. 37-. ISBN 9781581124682. Retrieved 25 November 2010. [14] ] Glycosphingolipid functions: insights from engineered mouse models, doi: 10.1098/rstb.2003.1268 Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 2003 358, 879-883 [15] [16] Endosytosis image: http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/cellbiology/index.php?title=2009_Lecture_6 excoystoisis http://cellbiology.med.unsw.edu.au/units/science/lecture0805.htm figure 1 Gap junction pic: http://www.cytochemistry.net/cell-biology/membrane3.htm cell membrane pic http://www.microscopy.fsu.edu/cells/plasmamembrane/plasmamembrane.html

Social Work Case Study Foster Care

Social Work Case Study Foster Care Kirsty Lynch    You are a new social worker to the case. Your team leader has asked you to look at where the placement is going. What should be the care plan for James? As the newly appointed social worker to James case I have reviewed all of James file and have met with James and his foster family in order to complete an appropriate care plan. In accordance with best practice guidelines I met James on his own and spoke to him about his current placement and where he would like this to go. Hearing the voice of James informed my decision when choosing an appropriate care plan for James as this went beyond simply listening to his wishes, but it also allowed me to hear his fears and concerns regarding his placement and future placements (HSE, 2013). The overall aim of James care plan is to determine the most suitable placement for James in the long-term. As multiple foster care placements can often disrupt stability and educational needs it is important to ensure as little disruption to James routine as possible (Darmody, et al., 2013). Having met with James, I have evaluated three placement options for James and concluded my final recommendation below. Placement Option 1: Relative Foster Care Under Section 3 (2)(c) of the 1991 Child Care Act, it states that it is in the best interest of children to grow up within their biological families. When a child is in need of a foster care placement, Tusla, the Child and Family agency, will initially look for a suitable relative or a person who is known to the child to provide relative foster care. Relative foster care, also known as Kinship care is defined as the full-time nurturing and protection of children who must be separated from their parents, by relatives, members of their tribes or clans, godparents, stepparents, or other adults who have a kinship bond with a child (Winokur, et al., 2009, p. 8). Advantages of Relative Foster Care Relative foster care improves childrens sense of belonging through the continuity of family identity, which plays a huge role in terms of the stability of the foster placement (Farmer Moyers, 2008). Research shows that there is little difference between how well children do in relative or non-relative care, it is a consistent finding that children in relative care do just as well as children in non-relative foster care, including the stability of the placement (Hunt, et al., 2008), however it is found that children in kinship care find relative care to be less stigmatising than non-relative foster care (Messing, 2006). Other advantages of placing children in relative foster care include; familiarity for the child, family identity, access to wider family, less traumatic environment and the child is able to continue with their life within their own ethnic, racial and religious background (Cuddeback Orme, 2002) Disadvantages of Relative Foster Care Research suggests that relative foster care does not provide children with the same level of safety as non-relative placements and as a result, non-relative foster placements may be safer in terms of the possibility of violence or other environmental dangers (Berrick, 1997). Cuddeback (2004) found that children in relative care do not function as well as children in the general or non-relative foster care, this includes higher reported behavioural problems and lower performance in school subjects. Children living in relative foster care often experience more environmental adversity due to the demographic characteristics of their relative foster carers (i.e relative foster carers tend to be older, less educated, single, possibility of illness and poverty) (Ehrle Geen, 2002). Placement Option 2: Long-term Foster Care The second option for James is that his current foster placement is turned into a Long-term foster placement, this would involve James continuing with his current foster family on a long-term basis. Long-term foster care is required when a social work department reaches a decision that it is unlikely that a child or young person will return to their own family and necessitates a commitment from the foster family for a number of years (IFCA, 2017). Long-term foster care allows children to become a part of their foster family and often continue to live with their long-term foster family until they reach adulthood (IFCA, 2017). Long-term foster care is generally classed as any period of time over 6 months, James placement has already drifted into a longer-term placement then originally planned as James has been with the Behan family for more than a year. Advantages of Long-term Foster Care Research suggests that children in care are much better off being cared for in long-term family units rather than being cared for in residential care homes. This is because children in long-term foster families receive more individual attention than they would in a residential setting where they are one child out of a large number of children being cared for. Festinger (1983) found that children who were in long-term foster care, functioned better than children who were brought up in residential care settings in a variety of different areas, these areas included; children in long-term foster care accomplished higher levels of education, had a smaller chance of criminal behaviour which would lead to arrest or conviction, had less disappointment with the frequency of contact that they had with biological siblings, were less likely to move away when they reached independence and less likely to live alone in adulthood. A long with this young people in long-term foster care were less likely than those in residential care to develop problems around substance abuse (Jones Moses, 1984). Long-term foster care can provide children with a sense of belonging when the foster family allow the child to become a part of their family, children in long-term foster care often engage in family rituals and fun experiences which is important for encouraging feelings of belonging (Hedin, 2014). Research also shows that long-term foster carers who are meaningfully involved in the foster childs life and who offer supportive and caring relationships, provide better placement stability and less breakdown of placements (Christiansen, et al., 2013). Disadvantages of Long-term Foster Care International research suggests that children who are in long-term foster care may be at risk of lower emotional and developmental outcomes when compared with children who are reunified with their birth families, or children who are adopted (Moran, et al., 2016). The legal status of long-term foster care offers no sense of permanency for children and young people, and as a result, children in long-term foster care can often be left with feelings of anxiety and uncertainty. There is a strong possibility that children will be further subjected to more legal proceedings and there is always the change that the placement will be terminated (Grey, 2006). Placement Option 3: Residential Foster Care In my opinion, residential foster care should only be chosen as a last resort placement as children deserve to be brought up in a family. However, for young people who are effectively unable to live in their own home or in an alternative foster family, residential care may be the only suitable placement. There are various types of residential care, some are homes run by the HSE, others are run by private companies or voluntary organisations. Regardless of the type of residential setting, all are subject to inspection. In accordance with policy and best practice, the HSE does not place children who are 12 years of age or under in residential foster care except in exceptional circumstances (McEvoy Smith, 2011). Advantages of Residential Foster Care A small study which was conducted by Save the Children found that a high percentage of children in care identified that that would rather be in residential care than living in a foster home (Barry, 2001). Those interviewed advised that they had a strong preference for residential care as they felt it was more stable for young people, especially around schooling and found that it was easier to talk about their experiences with other children who are in residential care (Moran, et al., 2016). The young people identified that their trust in people and their capacity to sustain long-term relationships was affected by the constant moving between foster care placements and various schools, whereas in residential care they felt this was a long-term solution and they were able to maintain friendships with school friends by continuing to attend the same school on a regular basis (Barry, 2001). Disadvantages of Residential Foster Care The study found that children also identified many negatives with residential care, including; challenging to have any time alone, the lack of discipline made it difficult to live with other young people who had challenging behaviour and often the unpredictable ambience that was formed by a large number of young people all living together in one care setting (Barry, 2001). Other research emphasised a variety of problems experienced in residential care, both physical and emotional, which can have an enormous impact on the stability of the placement (Hyde Kammerer, 2009). These included a high turnover of residential staff, anxiety, dealing with impulsive behaviours of other young people and often children who are placed in residential care can model their own behaviour off of others and as a result young people in residential care often have aggressive tendencies (Moran, et al., 2016). By placing together young people who are at-risk, this can often limit their experience of positive role models and their prospects to develop their own attitudes and pro-social skills (Turner Macdonald, 2011). My Recommendation It is my recommendation that James continue his placement and that this be made long-term. When James first came into foster care the CFA assessed James for relative foster care, unfortunately James has no relatives other than his mother Jennifer in Ireland and Jennifer has very little contact with her family back home. To date Jennifer has not been in contact with the CFA despite a number of attempts from the CFA to make contact with her. Jennifer left Ireland without informing the CFA and it has since become clear that she is living abroad in a new relationship. Jennifer has made no attempts to make contact with James in over 12 months. Children deserve to grow up in a loving, caring family, and I feel James deserves to experience this with the Behan family as it is not possible for James to return to his biological family. Research shows that children who experience loving relationships with foster families frequently consider them as their second family (Mason Tipper, 2008), from speaking with James it is clear that he regards the Behan family as his own family. Mary supports James emotionally, James feels that he can trust Mary, this is evident as James confided in Mary about being bullied in school. International research shows that foster parents who are emotionally concerned about their foster children and who provide supportive relationships with their foster children, have been found to provide better placement stability and there is a much lower risk of the breakdown of placements (Carnochan, et al., 2013). James has been living with the Behan family for 14 months, has frequently attended the local primary school and has been enrolled into the local secondary school for September coming. I feel that the transition from primary school to secondary school will be hard on James, however I feel that with the support of the Behan family, and familiar friends attending the same school, that this will be easier for James than being uprooted to a new foster home and starting over again in a new school unknown to him. It is my final recommendation that it is in James best interests to continue his placement with the Behan family and that this placement be made into a long-term placement. Your team leader is sceptical about the idea of supporting the skiing holiday idea (on financial and health and safety grounds). But she also asks you to argue for the idea, so that the issues can be clearly set out for discussion and decision I support the idea of James going on a skiing holiday as I feel that holidaying with family is an integral part of growing up and will benefit James in a number of ways. I have outlined below what I feel the benefits of this holiday will be to James and I have supported this with academic research. I have also addressed your concerns on the financial and health and safety grounds of James attending this holiday. Benefits of Skiing family Holiday Studies show holidays can benefit carers and   children in their care by helping to create a bond between the two (Lewis, 2001). Research on the effects of children in cares participation in holidays has also specifically explored how engaging in holidays can be a way of encouraging engagement with mainstream society and promoting the social inclusion of children in care (Quinn Stacey, 2010). Lewis (2001) found that children in care were aware of their social exclusion and they often felt they were missing out on holidays that other children were able to experience with their families. This is supported by Hughes who advised that being able to go on holiday gives children the ability to participate in the commonly ordinarily accepted   style of life in the community (Hughes, 1991). Benefits of Family Holidays for Foster Children: Strengthening Family bonds: Holidays allow children and their foster families time to bond as a family. It is crucial for children to have healthy attachments and family holidays provide provision for this to happen (IFAPA, 2013). If James placement is to be made long-term, it is important that he continues to build and maintain relationships within the Behan family and a family holiday will help both James and the family to strengthen their family bonds. Normalisation: Family holidays are a normal part of growing up and often children in care can feel that they are not normal and that they dont fit in with social norms. A lot of children in foster care often miss out on the normality of family life and this should not be the case (IFAPA, 2013). It is important for James to feel that he is part of the Behan family and for him to continue to have as normal a childhood as possible. Independence: By including foster children in the planning process of a holiday, this can boost childrens independence. Foster children can learn a lot about the holiday planning process that can allow them to have some ownership, this is not only ownership within the process, but also ownership in the outcome of the holiday. Holidays are a vital part of childhood and provide many opportunities for children in care to learn valuable life skills (IFAPA, 2013). Foster children often feel that they are not important enough to include and many struggle with feelings of low self worth (IFAPA, 2013). Currently James is struggling with feelings of low self worth as he has reacted badly to his mothers disappearance and has become quite withdrawn and depressed. The fact that the Behan family wish to include James on their family holiday is important to show James that he is part of their family and that he is wanted. A holiday would be beneficial to James not only to strengthen his bond with the family, but also for his own mental wellbeing. Financial Foster families are provided with a fostering allowance to help foster parents to meet the daily living needs to the childs, this allowance generally covers the likes of food, clothing and education such as books, uniforms and extra-curricular activities, the allowance also tried to cover treats such as toys, games and holidays (Tusla, 2017). When it comes to holidays, these are an expensive event for any family, especially if the holiday is abroad. The Behan family have already worked together to save as much as they can for the upcoming Skiing holiday to contribute to the cost of bringing Sean with them. The remaining à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬400 that they are seeking from Tusla is needed in order to pay for the extra insurance needed to bring Sean away, Seans passport, as well as needing a bigger apartment to ensure that Sean has his own bedroom for the duration of the holiday. Many other fostering agencies recognise this and in some cases, increase the foster carers allowance over the dura tion of school holidays which can often help foster carers to fund a holiday for their foster child (NFA, 2015). In some cases foster parents are entitled to an additional payment when they choose to take their foster child on a family holiday with them and I feel that this should be the case for the Behan family as the benefits for James would be immense (NFA, 2015). Health and Safety The Irish foster care association advises that foster children are not always covered under family insurance policies for holidaying as foster children may not be included in the definition of family or close relative. They further advise that they have raised this issue with many travel insurance companies and as a result, more and more travel insurance companies are now including foster children under the definition of family since the legalities of foster care have been brought to their attention (IFCA, 2013). I have contacted a number of travel insurance companies on behalf of the CFA to confirm whether or not foster children are included on their policies and have compiled a list of appropriate companies for future purposes. As there is further risk associated with sports holidays, such as a skiing holiday, this has been further discussed with the Behan family to ensure that the insurance policy that they take out has a provision for a skiing holiday. The Behan family are aware of the health and safety risks of a skiing holiday with James and have discussed their concerns around this with me. Having researched health and safety and insurance of foster children on holidays, the Behan family have advised that they are satisfied that the insurance policy that they will be taking out will be sufficient for James to attend the holiday with them. Conclusion The research provided proves that children can benefit from holidays abroad by experiencing new activities, culture and educational experiences. In her research on children in care in 2001, Lewis identified the benefits of children in care participating in family holidays as strengthening relationships, relaxation, escaping routine, social interaction, self-fulfilment and educational opportunities (Lewis, 2001). As a result I support the idea of James attending the skiing holiday with the Behan family as I believe that holidaying with family is an integral part of growing up and it will benefit James to experience this while providing him with a positive childhood experience which many foster children often miss out on. Word Count: 2,997 Bibliography: Barry, M., 2001. A sense of purpose: Care leavers views and experiences of growing up. Glasgow: Strathprints Institutional Repository. Berrick, J. D., 1997. Assessing quality of care in kinship and foster family care. Family Relations, Volume 46, p. 273-281. Carnochan, S., Moore, M. Austin, M. J., 2013. Achieving placement stability. Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work, Volume 10, p. 235-253. Child Care Act, 1991. The Child Care Act. Dublin: Government of Ireland. Christiansen, O., Havnen, J. S. K., Havik, T. Anderssen, N., 2013. Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care. British Journal of Social Work,, Volume 43, p. 720-738. Cuddeback, G. S., 2004. Kinship family foster care: a methodological and substantive synthesis of research. Children and Youth Services Review,, Volume 26, pp. 623-639. Cuddeback, G. S. Orme, J. G., 2002. Training and services for kinship and nonkinship foster families. Child Welfare, Volume 81, pp. 879-909. Darmody, M., McMahon, L., Banks, J. Gilligan, R., 2013. Education of Children in Care in Ireland: An Exploratory Study, Dublin: Ombudsman for Children. Ehrle, J. Geen, R., 2002. Children cared for by Relatives: What Services Do They Need? Assessing the New Federalism Policy Brief, Washington DC: The Urban Institute. Farmer, E. Moyers, S., 2008. Kinship Care: Fostering Effective Family and Friends Placements (Quality Matters in Childrens Services). London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Festinger, T., 1983. No One Ever Asked Us a Postscript to Foster Care. New York: Columbia University Press. FFI, 2017. Fostering First Ireland. [Online] Available at: https://www.fosteringfirstireland.ie/what-is-fostering/the-different-types-of-placements/standard-placements/[Accessed 27 February 2017]. Grey, B., 2006. LONG-TERM FOSTERING OR ADOPTION? A RESEARCH REVIEW. Seen and Heard, 15(4), pp. 45-51. Hedin, L., 2014. A sense of belonging in a changeable everyday life A follow up study of young people in kinship, network and traditional foster care. Child and Family Social Work, 19(2), p. 165-173. HSE, 2013. Court: Best Practice Guidance , Dublin: Health Service Executive. Hughes, H. L., 1991. Holidays and the economically disadvantaged. Tourism Management, 12(3), pp. 193-196. Hunt, J., Waterhouse, S. Lutman, E., 2008. Keeping them in the family, outcomes for children placed in kinship care through care proceedings. London: BAAF. Hyde, J. Kammerer, N., 2009. Adolescents perspectives on placement moves and congregate settings: Complex and cumulative instabilities in out-of-home care. Children and Youth Services Review, Volume 31, p. 265-273. IFAPA, 2013. Iowa Foster Adoptive Parents Association. [Online] Available at: http://www.ifapa.org/pdf_docs/weeklywordjune42013.pdf[Accessed 3 March 2017]. IFCA, 2017. Irish Foster Care Association. [Online] Available at: http://www.ifca.ie/fostering/types-fostering/[Accessed 2 March 2017]. Jones, M. A. Moses, B., 1984. West Virginias former foster children: Their experiences in care and their lives as young adults. New York: Child Welfare League of America. Lewis, E., 2001. Evaluation of the Benefits of Recreational Holidays for Young People in Public Care. London: National Childrens Bureau. Mason, J. Tipper, B., 2008. Being related: How children define and create kinship. Childhood, 15(4), p. 441-460. McEvoy, O. Smith, M., 2011. Listen to our voices: Hearing Children and Young People living in the care of the state, Dublin: Minister for Children and Youth Affairs. Messing, J. T., 2006. From the childs perspective: A qualitative analysis of kinship care placements.. Children and Youth Services Review,, Volume 28, pp. 1415-1434. Moran, L., McGregor, C. Devaney, C., 2016. Practitioner Guide to Literature Review: Permanence and Stability for Children in Care, The National University of Ireland, Galway: The UNESCO Child and Family Research Centre. Quinn, B. Stacey, J., 2010. The Benefits of Holidaying for Children Experiencing Social Exclusion:Recent Irish Evidence. Leisure Studies, 29(1), pp. 29-52. Turner, W. Macdonald, ,. G., 2011. Treatment foster care for improving outcomes in children and young people: A systematic review. Research on Social Work Practice, 21(5), p. 501-527. Winokur, M., Holtan, A. Valentine, D., 2009. Kinship care for the safety, permanency, and well-being of children removed from the home for maltreatment, s.l.: Wiley.